Shared Lineages: A Brief Review of the Ecology and Anthropology of Chile and New Zealand.
This article is a trans-disciplinary collaboration between writers from Chile and New Zealand, with the intent to investigate and present the relationship and similarities between these two countries. The biological similarities of the two countries are intimately linked through a shared Gondwanan past and similar evolutionary pressures on each country’s species. The anthropological review reveals that the indigenous people of both nations have similar views and relationships with the natural environment. Through these similarities, we may understand that while separated by more than 9000 km, New Zealand and Chile are more alike than one may think.
Ecology & Anthropology | Emily Smith, Jarod McTaggart, Josefa Hernández & Valentina Lagos
Introduction
Chile and Aotearoa New Zealand are two Southern Hemisphere nations that both originated from the Gondwanan supercontinent. This shared geographical heritage, as well as similar habitats and biomes, have led to phylogenetic similarity between species. In addition, the indigenous groups of Chile and Aotearoa New Zealand have similar worldviews and ways of existing within their environments that emphasise spiritual connection and reciprocity. This article is a collaboration between writers from Chile and Aotearoa New Zealand to explore our two countries' ecology. A trans-disciplinary approach was taken in order to understand not only the biology of these countries but also the ecological perspective of the indigenous peoples. We initially investigate biological links between Aotearoa New Zealand and Chile, including shared lineages, evolution, ecology and iconic species. An anthropological lens is then applied, comparing the cultural ecology of these nations. Sections pertaining to Chile are written in English for New Zealand readers, and sections pertaining to Aotearoa New Zealand are written in Spanish for readers in Chile. This collaboration aims to educate readers from each country about the other, presenting the uniqueness of our countries to a new audience.
Biological
Shared Lineages
Chile and Aotearoa New Zealand are a world away from each other; however, this was not always the case. 180 million years ago, South America, Australia and New Zealand were connected in the Gondwanan continent. During this time, species were shared, and both plants and animals could move between these now separated land masses. Due to this, biogeographical scientists have found that taxa found in Australia and New Zealand share close relationships with South American Taxa [1].
Vegetation
The vegetation of many parts of Chile and Aotearoa New Zealand are similar, notably the Southern Beech forests. Nothofagus is an iconic genus, comprising much of the forest in the South Island of Aotearoa, as well as along the Southern Andes in Chile. Another taxa linking these two countries is Fuscopannaria, a lichen species, Laurelia novae-zelandiae in New Zealand and its Chilean counterpart, Laureliopsis philippiana [1].
Animals
However, it is not just vegetation linking these countries. There are a number of animal species that appear in both regions, further connecting these two countries. The Tuatara (Sphenodon spp) is one of Aotearoa New Zealand’s most iconic animals, namely due to them being the last extant species’ of Sphenodon. While there are no more living species from the order, the most recent fossil relatives of the Tuatara were found in Patagonia [2], which is the region of South America that Chile is part of. These are just a few of the examples of lineages that are shared between these two distant countries, illustrating this shared past of lands once connected. Many of these distributions are patterned, showing a direct link between New Zealand with specific regions of South America, where once they were joined [3].
Endemism
Chile has a high degree of endemic biodiversity, this being due to its geographical location and features of the landscape. Like Chile, New Zealand has high degrees of endemism; this, however, is due to the fact it is an island and thus, populations are isolated and are able to speciate allopatrically. Chile, while not an island, is isolated from surrounding populations due to geographic barriers, with oceans surrounding the western and southern coastlines, the Andes on the eastern border and the Atacama desert on its north [4]. These geographic features, as well as a number of other historical geographic features such as glaciers, have resulted in Chile having the highest number of endemic genera in South America [5]. Chile is one of the most conservationally focused countries in South America, with protected areas representing 19% of Chile's land surface, compared to the mean of 6.4% for South American countries [6]. This illustrates Chile's commitment to protecting these valuable and unique endemic species.
Chile is home to exotic, beautiful and unique species, high levels of biodiversity and endemic species. While at first glance, the ecology of Chile may seem alien to New Zealand, they are, in fact, related. Though distant, this relationship is multifaceted, from shared Gondwanan lineages that were broken apart 180 million years ago. To the evolutionary processes that play on these populations stemming from our respective isolating features. Aotearoa New Zealand and Chile are no doubt distinct from each other; however, considering all factors, these two countries have a number of similarities and relationships that prove they are far more closely related than one may expect.
Biological
Hace aproximadamente 240 millones de años atrás, existió un supercontinente llamado Pangea, el cuál dió paso a Laurasia (hemisferio Norte) y Gondwana (hemisferio Sur) en el periodo Cretácico. Éste último continuó separándose dando lugar a las grandes masas continentales hoy en día conocidas como Sudamérica, África, Australia, India, Madagascar, Zealandia y la Antártica. Éste supercontinente es biogeográficamente importante debido a que explica similitudes en términos de distribución geográfica de muchos grupos taxonómicos encontrados en estas grandes masas continentales. Al quedar estos grupos en condiciones de aislamiento reproductivo, se generó sobre ellos un proceso de especiación [7]. A pesar de ésto, y gracias a el seguimiento de la historia evolutiva y biogeográfica de estos linajes, aún es posible trazar ancestros comunes entre los organismos que en algún momento habitaron Gondwana.
Una muestra interesante de esto podría corresponder a la presencia del género Nothofagus en países como Chile y Nueva Zelanda. Actualmente existen 36 especies descritas de éste género en el mundo, de las cuales, cuatro se pueden encontrar en Nueva Zelanda; N. solandri, N. fusca, N. truncata y N. menziesii. Siendo ésta última del subgénero Lophozonia. De la misma forma, los subgéneros de Nothofagus distribuidos en ambos países, también comparten un género de hongo parasitario llamado Cyttaria, de las cuales, tres especies parasitan a N. menziesii. La filogenia de este hongo podría sugerir una mayor cercanía entre los subgéneros Nothofagus y Lophozonia presentes en Chile y Nueva Zelanda respectivamente. Cabe mencionar que N. menziesii y N. fusca corresponden a especies endémicas de Nueva Zelanda [8].
Nueva Zelanda posee una gran diversidad en términos de especies endémicas. Una de las más emblemáticas del país corresponde al Kiwi (Apteryx spp.). Éste pequeño género de aves se constituye de cinco especies endémicas correspondientes a las tres islas principales de Nueva Zelanda y se ha vuelto uno de los emblemas extraoficiales característicos de éste país. Sin embargo, todas las especies de Kiwi se encuentran amenazadas, siendo el Kiwi marrón de la isla Norte (Apteryx mantelli) el que posee la mayor tasa de disminución en su población. Debido a que estas aves evolucionaron en ausencia de mamíferos depredadores estos corresponden a su mayor amenaza, siendo los perros, gatos, cerdos, hurones, zarigüeyas, armiños y comadrejas los principales causales de su declive. Estas especies habrían sido introducidas a Nueva Zelanda por polinesios y europeos [9], por lo que la actividad humana sería clave en la conservación de muchas especies endémicas de este país. Un ejemplo de esto sería el delfín de Hector (Cephalorhynchus hectori) el cual ha experimentado un alza en sus tasas de mortalidad de la última década debido a la presencia de pesqueras, turismo, contaminantes y tráfico de embarcaciones. El control de estos factores sería crucial debido a que es común encontrar hotspots de este delfín en aguas cercanas a la costa [10], siendo la Península de Banks uno de los lugares más críticos [11]. Otras especies endémicas como el murciélago de cola larga de Nueva Zelanda (Chalinolobus tuberculatus) y el tuatara (Sphenodon spp) también se encuentran en estado de conservación vulnerable desde la llegada del hombre [12-13]. A pesar de esto, Nueva Zelanda forma parte del Convenio sobre la Biodiversidad Biológica desde 1992, el cual expone que las partes contratantes están al tanto de las causas de la baja en biodiversidad y promueven su prevención mediante el uso de la ciencia y la divulgación [14]. Además, sería importante destacar que, muchas de estas especies son de gran importancia para la cultura Maorí y lo relevante que resulta esta para la conservación de la biodiversidad de su país.
Cultural
Chile’s cultural history is similar to that of New Zealand. Indigenous territory was conquered by Europeans, triggering a period of conflict, which eventually led to a democratic government. Spanish conquistadores invaded the Incan Empire during the 16th century, facing different levels of resistance from various indigenous groups. The Mapuche people of the central Chilean region of Araucania held off colonial forces successfully, and as a result, this group comprises approximately 90% of the indigenous population of Chile (other groups include the Aymara, Quechua, and Atacameño, among many others). The word Mapuche means ‘people of the land’ from mapu = land, earth, and che = people [15], like the Māori tangata whenua. Like many indigenous groups worldwide, the Mapuche place meaning on the deep and complex relationship between people and the land, rather than its economic utility [15]. The Mapuche spiritual worldview contributes substantially to their understanding and management of their ecological environment [16].
One of the most important aspects of the bond between Mapuche people and the environment is their reliance on medicinal plants (lawen) as a primary method of healthcare. Professional medical care is used to a much lesser extent, for a variety of reasons. Often, medical facilities are difficult to access, care is expensive, and cultural barriers may exist between indigenous patients and their doctors. However, one of the most common reasons given for this preference is the belief that herbal remedies are simply more effective [17]. Herbal practitioners are known as machi and are almost exclusively women [17]. A complex set of rules and traditions exists that maximise the effectiveness of the remedy. For example, when lawen are collected, a machi prays to the soul of the plant for permission to use the plant for healing purposes. If this is not practised, it is believed that the remedy will be ineffective or make the gatherer ill herself [17]. The therapeutic use of plants in this way is a practice learned by young women through an apprenticeship of 2-4 years and results in active and mutual trust and respect between the machi and her community and the lawen and associated spirits [17]. The effectiveness of these herbal remedies is a combination of both the chemically active agents present in the plants and the sociocultural understandings of the ritual and ceremony involved in the process [17]. Because both the plants and the people practising the ceremonies are located in a specific geographical area, a close link is created between the social and biological ecosystems of Araucania.
The Mapuche, as well as other indigenous groups within Chile, persist in increasing their recognition as an integral part of Chilean society [18]. Despite the losses of land and associated traditions as part of the process of colonization, some Mapuche continue their ancestral practices, even if adapted for modern circumstances. There is a growing understanding that the relationship between people and place is essential to consider alongside economics and politics [19], in order to conserve and value social as well as biological diversity.
Cultural
Los maoríes son los primeros pobladores de Nueva Zelanda, quienes llegaron al continente hace aproximadamente 1000 años desde Hawaiki, una isla ubicada en la Polinesia oriental a bordo de 7 canoas, tradicionalmente conocidas como wakas, según cuenta la mitología maorí, ellos describen a Nueva Zelanda, en su lengua, Aotearoa como “la tierra de la larga nube blanca”. Estos polinesios eran grandes recolectores y cazadores, pues basaban su alimentación tanto en frutas y verduras como en peces y aves nativas del sector, y se organizaban en familias o whanau , las cuales a su vez se dividían en tribus o iwis.
Debido al aislamiento geográfico de este pueblo originario lograron desarrollar una cultura inigualable, la cual está profundamente en sincronía y conexión con la naturaleza. El uso de diversas plantas para la realización de rituales y ceremonias es un indicio clave de esto, y se puede evidenciar debido a que uno de los rasgos característicos de esta cultura son los tatuajes que se encuentran distribuidos a lo largo del rostro y cuerpo, dando cuenta de cada hazaña realizada. Mayormente conocidos como tā moko, estos tatuajes se realizaban a partir de los pigmentos de diversos hongos y trozos de madera quemados.
No solo el uso de elementos de la naturaleza era importante para ellos, sino también el culto a esta misma, los maoríes contaban con una gran diversidad de deidades las cuales representaban a distintos elementos del mundo natural, y para ellos era extremadamente relevante honrarlos.
Rongoā Māori, es el nombre que recibe la medicina maorí, la cual está profundamente centrada en el uso de plantas y la creación de brebajes con estas mismas para la curación de enfermedades, de manera holística se utilizan alimentos para la creación de estos medicamentos naturales.
Luego de la llegada de los pakeha, es decir, europeos a Nueva Zelanda, se desataron diversas situaciones que afectaron negativamente la población de maoríes en la isla. En primer lugar, al llegar los británicos trajeron con ellos múltiples enfermedades que fueron contagiadas a los indígenas, junto con esto se desataron varias guerras entre tribus.
Conocidas como las guerras de los Mosquetes, se lideraron un conjunto de batallas tras la adquisición de armas, las cuales eran compradas directamente a los británicos colonizadores, que lograron llevar a la erradicación de algunas de las tribus de la isla, siendo determinantes en la disminución de los maoríes.
Actualmente, esta cultura se encuentra principalmente distribuida en la zona norte de Nueva Zelanda, siendo la lengua maorí uno de los idiomas oficiales de este país.
Conclusion
Despite being a world away from each other, Chile and Aotearoa New Zealand share more similarities than one might expect. Our shared Gondwanan origin links the ancestral lineages of many species in each country, and similar evolutionary pressures have driven the development of endemism in both regions. Furthermore, the indigenous groups of both nations, while unique, share similar worldviews. Both Mapuche (as well as less populous Chilean groups) and Māori embody a spirituality linking human society with the physical and natural environment. Less emphasis is placed on the economic utility of land in these frameworks. Therefore, while distant, Chile and New Zealand may be considered sister nations.
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UoA Scientific Writers
Emily is a third-year student studying Anthropology and Ecology within a conjoint Bachelor of Arts/Bachelor of Science at Waipapa Taumata Rau. She is passionate about sharing everyday environmental initiatives with those around her and loves learning about the flora and fauna of New Zealand.
Emily Smith - BA/BSc, Anthropology, Ecology
Jarod is studying for a Postgraduate Diploma in Science (Biosecurity and Conservation) as well as holding a BA (Communications / Media, film and television) BSc (Biological Sciences- ecology pathway) conjoint degree from the University of Auckland. He has a passion for filmmaking as well as the environment, specifically within New Zealand. With the goal to make a substantial contribution to conservation in New Zealand, through research, science communications, policy and community based work.
Jarod McTaggart - PGDipSci, Biosecurity, Conservation
AEB Chile Writers
Josefa Hernández - Biology
Josefa is a third-year biology student at the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile. She hopes to specialize in the area of behavioral and evolutionary ecology. She currently enjoys studying the behavior of top predators and some primates.
Valentina Lagos - BSBio, Neurobiology
Valentina is a second-year student at Universidad de Chile in Santiago currently studying Bachelor of Sciences in Biology. She is passionate about the neurological study of animal behavior and acquiring knowledge about the endemic flora of Chile.